Excess nitrogen in the body is excreted in one of three forms: ammonia (as the ammonium ion), urea, and uric acid. Animals, such as fish, that live in the water excrete nitrogen as ammonia, which is quickly diluted by the aqueous environment. In terrestrial animals, the primary waste product of nitrogen metabolism is urea, a water-soluble compound. Birds excrete excess nitrogen in the form of uric acid, an insoluble chemical that allows birds to remove nitrogen without the use of water.

Polarized light images were captured using an Intel Play QX3 computer microscope modified for crossed polarized illumination. Additional light was applied to the specimens using light pipes from a Dolan-Jenner Model 180 fiber optics illuminator containing a 150 watt projection lamp. A 5/16-inch hole was drilled into the light mixing chamber at the base of the microscope and the light pipe was pointed towards the far wall of the chamber to increase illumination.

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